1 Early Childhood Teachers in Jamaica Perceptions of Professional Development for Classroom

1

Early Childhood Teachers in Jamaica Perceptions of Professional Development for Classroom Management Practices

Name

Department

Subject

Professor

Date

Review of the Literature

Chapter Introduction

The chapter has two separate segments about early childhood education. The first segment highlights the Irie Model to describe its relationship with early childhood education. Fundamentally, this segment consists of 2 additional classifications (the Irie Home Toolbox and the Irie Classroom Toolbox) (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). Their work highlighted the significance of the model against violence. Technically, the Irie model (Home segment) utilized fifteen months, showing the amount of work and dedication required to develop a theory and a practical model for early childhood education (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). The model underwent three more stages where the researchers utilized their skills to improve the efficacy and performance of the model (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). For instance, the first and second phases used 2 months to develop the groundwork for the theory (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). The third phase required three months, empowering different stakeholders to contribute and improve the effectiveness of the model (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). The fourth phase utilized 8 months (a slightly longer period) to develop a final shape for the model and its theoretical underpinnings (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). 

The first part of this segment sheds light on the history of early childhood education evolution since its inception in 1973. This component highlights the evolutionary process that provided a solid foundation for early childhood education in Jamaica. It also includes early childhood curriculum development for children from birth to eight years, especially when it reaches the point of an integrated curriculum, indicating the Jamaican government’s efforts to regularize a framework essential for early childhood education and teachers.

Subsequently, this segment shows political and social upheavals that have prevented early childhood education from reaching its potential. In addition, policy discontinuation and its effects on the performance of early childhood teachers and students remain those additional factors that describe how early Jamaican childhood education fails to perform its role by not imparting quality curriculum and effective early childhood teachers’ role in enhancing the academic performance of Jamaican children. Subsequently, the segment explains social challenges that undermine the significance of early childhood education in Jamaica.

The second subsection reflects classroom management practices for early childhood teachers. This segment focuses on the learning environment and the external and internal factors that enable it to perform its role effectively. After defining the concept of learning environment, the section exhibits benefits from an effective learning environment within a classroom management paradigm.

Subsequently, the subsection identifies factors that create hurdles for the learning environment. For example, disruptive behavior, alienation, and safety of the classroom environment are critical factors that describe how they are significant for ensuring a learning environment. It also highlights physical, cognitive, social, and other forms of development that describe how a child undergoes these processes. It also examines the relationship between an early childhood teacher and students as it describes how their level of communication and interaction affects the learning environment, indicating the significance of classroom management strategies for teachers.

The third subsection explores the professional development of early childhood teachers. The significance of professional learning communities shows how professional development enhances the academic quality of early childhood teachers. Curriculum planning and implementation also move along with the professional development process by highlighting the benefits of professional development for early childhood teachers. It also elucidates critical aspects, such as diversity, inclusivity, a culturally responsive learning environment, and the role of professionally developed early childhood teachers in interacting with different stakeholders, including families.

The subsection describes the importance of uninterrupted professional development of early childhood teachers. This section consists of some segments, including health, technology, classroom environment, assessment methods, and health education as they enable an early childhood teacher to understand the significance of the relationship between early childhood education and their professional development. For instance, children exhibit a variety of behaviors and attitudes when they learn as their social upbringing affects their behaviors and attitudes when they learn and study new things in life. Consequently, this subsection describes a methodology for early childhood teachers to respond to such situations. Specifically, it describes the Teacher-Child Interaction Training-Universal (TCIT-U) model. Its design enables a teacher to develop a positive and constructive relationship with students. This component also explains assessment methods that enable early childhood teachers to work efficiently.

The Irie Model

Irie Classroom Toolbox Model

Anti-violence training is essential for early childhood teachers (Merrill et al., 2020). The Irie classroom toolbox model is a professional development program for early childhood teachers. The prime aim of this tool is to enable a teacher to develop specific behaviors and activities in early childhood teachers (Baker-Henningham et al., 2021a). They work as interventions when a child exhibits a negative behavior that is socially unacceptable in academic and other settings (Bowers et al., 2022). It includes classroom activities that define a relationship with specific behaviors and outcomes. The Irie classroom toolbox includes benchmarks that help to establish classroom activities and rules. It encompasses reward systems, behavioral charts, and other academic and extracurricular activities that help obtain specific behaviors.

In addition, the model also depends on the professional capability of early childhood teachers (Bowers et al., 2022). For instance, the reward system motivates students to claim a reward when they follow specific activities and adopt particular behavior that leads to developing a positive and constructive attitude towards other students and teachers.

However, the efficacy of this model largely depends on the quality of the relationship between a student and a teacher. If a teacher retains no strong relationship with a child, it would be useless to apply this professional model because it substantially relies on their relationship. Also, this model suggests teachers must monitor negative behavior and its frequency as it enables the teacher to ascertain whether the applied model helps the child to change their behavior with positive reinforcement.

Professional development of early childhood teachers necessitates developing all these skills for early childhood teachers. Traditionally, early childhood teachers prefer to focus on the academic side of their teaching. Conventional teachers like to teach students the curriculum and help them achieve the milestones to move to the next stage of the curriculum. The problem with this approach is that it does not connect the role of an early childhood teacher with today’s pace of professionalism required to carry out the responsibilities of early childhood education. This approach creates a gap between professional development and traditional teaching of early childhood, creating challenges for children and teachers.

Graph 01

Irie Model Development

The development of the Irie Homes Toolbox took more than fifteen months to reach its final shape (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). This tool consists of 4 stages with pre-determined goals and outcomes (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). For instance, stage 1 was a preliminary intervention design that took 2 months to complete all steps necessary to satisfy the stage conditions (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). For example, this model pinpointed behavior management-related strategies (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). Subsequently, the researchers also asked questions from the participants to share their understanding of the program’s efficacy (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). Finally, the step necessitated to develop a theory (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020).

The second phase consisted of 2 months as it facilitated the researchers to craft an initial draft of the intervention (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). The prime aim of this stage was to apply the concept of pilot testing, a unique research model that shows whether to pursue the topic further (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). In this stage, the researchers invited participants from 4 community preschools to identify content efficacy (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). Consequently, this phase enabled the researchers to craft their initial intervention and basic roadmap for the model (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020).

The third phase was about the final draft of the intervention, taking around 3 months to apply and understand the usefulness of the initial draft intervention (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). Finally, the authors identify two groups, consisting of six parents from five community preschools (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020).

This phase also found the need for an active relationship and coordination between parents and teachers because the researchers invited them to share their feedback to improve the validity and efficacy of the intervention (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). As a result, this phase developed the final draft of the intervention of the model (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020).

The fourth stage continued the data collection and theory development process (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). This phase took eight months, allowing one hundred and fifteen parents from 9 participating schools to join the theory development process (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). This stage asked the participants to share their feedback about their presence and absence from the participation; it also recommended sharing challenges and opportunities about the enforcement process of the model’s content and its delivery mechanism, concluding the fourth stage that transformed into today’s form of the Irie Homes Toolbox (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020).  

Parents always search for effective interventions for their problem child (Melendez-Torres et al., 2019). This professional development model enables parents and caregivers to reinforce positive behavior in the home conditions (Francis & Baker-Henningham, 2020). The first condition of this model is for parents to undergo an extensive training and development program where they learn constructive parental methods designed to develop specific behaviors in children. It includes how a parent can communicate and discuss those issues that force the child to exhibit negative behavior, providing an opportunity to understand the reasons behind such behavior.

Also, this tool coordinates with the Irie classroom model as both work simultaneously to achieve the expected results. As a result, the Irie home toolbox offers similar provisions as in the classroom model. The prime aim of this coordination is to work collectively to reduce the impact and expression of negative behavior through a combined and unified approach. In other words, it requires parents to work closely with teachers to achieve their pre-determined behavioral objectives.

Apart from other objectives, this professional development program provides an opportunity for parents to learn the art of building relationships with children in a domestic environment where they can develop friendships with children.  

This section highlights the dimensions of the professional development of early childhood teachers. It shows that curriculum development and implementation are 2 separate phases that highlight whether a teacher is professionally competent to carry out teaching services for children. Subsequently, cognitive skills and classroom environment aspects reveal the significance of early childhood teaching when a teacher establishes class rules, classroom management strategies, and stubborn behavior and their impact on the classroom environment.

Also, professional development must enable teachers to highlight the significance of diversity and inclusivity by promoting a culturally responsive learning environment. Family coordination, formative and summative assessment, technology, health, well-being, health education, ethics, the Irie Classroom toolbox model, and the Irie home toolbox model are other dimensions that describe the significance of professional development for early childhood teachers. 

Review of the Broader Problem

Early Childhood Education in Jamaica

In 1973, the Project for Early Childhood Education (PECE) established the foundation for early childhood education in the written form that enabled children (4 to 5 years old) to understand and commence their academic journey (Maye-Hemmings & Wint, 2010). Consisting of twenty-four volumes and around five thousand pages, the Bernard van Leer Foundation provided financial and operational resources to print the content of the early childhood education curriculum for Jamaican children (Maye-Hemmings & Wint, 2010). Overall, it shows that the scope and scale used to develop the curriculum indicate that early childhood curriculum needed to be sufficient for teachers to understand the fundamental requirements of Jamaican preschoolers.

When a state or private institution provides funds to develop an academic activity or content, it often considers the perspectives of parties or stakeholders who will directly or indirectly experience the effects of such a policy or content-development process. For example, the stakeholders for early childhood development include students, teachers, school administration, parents, and others. Within this perspective, the pioneers of PECE determined to provide practical knowledge for teachers who were not fully prepared to impart quality early childhood education (Maye-Hemmings & Wint, 2010). Thereby, Mr. Grant decided and supervised the content development of PECE (Maye-Hemmings & Wint, 2010).

In 1979, the Ministry of Education, Early Childhood Unit, initiated a survey to minimize the gap between the current early education practices and the required ones (Maye-Hemmings & Wint, 2010). It took over 3 years to develop and submit a final report about “Readiness Curriculum for Four and Five Year Olds” to modernize the early childhood education system (Maye-Hemmings & Wint, 2010, p. IV). The imparted provisions of the new report maintained integrity with the needs of the students and their ways of learning and developing new skills related to their age (Maye-Hemmings & Wint, 2010). This evolution in early childhood education took more than 3 decades to change the dimension of early childhood education and its structure in Jamaica (Hylton & Hylton-Fraser, 2022). Consequently, that early childhood curriculum has become an integral part of today’s early childhood guide for children from birth to five years (Maye-Hemmings & Wint, 2010).

The Jamaican government implemented a curriculum for preschoolers to guide teachers on how to carry out their academic tasks. The curriculum framework was envisioned and ratified by nineteen Caribbean countries in 2001 to develop a combined curriculum for preschoolers (Maye-Hemmings & Wint, 2010). The purpose of their effort was to create a workable curriculum framework consisting of all personal, social, and professional attributes that enable preschoolers to learn more about culture, values, beliefs, and practices found in the Caribbean region, particularly in Jamaica (Maye-Hemmings & Wint, 2010). For instance, the Curriculum Framework emphasizes the significance of the Thematic Integrated Curriculum (curriculum name) by focusing on the skills related to personality, socialization, emotionality, spirituality, cognition, and creativity (Maye-Hemmings & Wint, 2010).

Still, the integrated framework for the curriculum suffered inherent limitations. Preschoolers often need to develop specific skills to obtain related academic and individual goals (Jahnke, 2019). Unfortunately, the Integrated Framework of Curriculum lacks these aspects of early childhood education. Schools determine their academic goals when they develop their curriculum. This practice focuses on educational goals rather than personal and student-specific objectives, highlighting the difference between specific skills and individual objectives (Jahnke, 2019).  

More importantly, age and skills must remain compatible as their compatibility enables children to learn quickly and effectively (Figueroa et al., 2019). This aspect also highlights a very significant area of early childhood education. Children and their learning abilities are those aspects that must retain cohesion, enabling children to learn quickly. Without this compatibility, it is rarely possible for any curriculum to achieve its milestones as envisioned at the start of an academic session (Figueroa et al., 2019).

Scientifically, age defines the level and depth of cognition difference between children and adults (Sacheli et al., 2019). Identifying the difference between cognitive levels enables schools and institutions to ascertain the complexity and difficulty levels (Sacheli et al., 2019). This benchmark helps understand how they can achieve academic objectives by enabling a specific group of students to develop their pre-determined skills and learning outcomes (Sacheli et al., 2019). Also, adults retain a different cognition level than children; this difference between them is identifiable through the prism of age as it guides how much to include complexity and difficulty levels in related curriculums (Sacheli et al., 2019).  

The role of early childhood teachers depends on some policy factors that affect their efficacy and performance. Jamaica has not only struggled to put in place but has also inadequately implemented a formal early childhood care and education policy for many years (Kinkead-Clark, 2023). Early childhood education and education policy go hand in hand (Whitaker et al., 2022). Their study highlights how state systems align with academic benchmarks of early childhood education to achieve their common objectives (Whitaker et al., 2022). In other words, the formulation and provisions offered to early childhood students and their compatibility with other academic stages remain a fundamental prerequisite that shows how a country’s education system works and ensures definite unanimity between these stages of learning for students.

The study finds benefits for learners by employing technology as a way to develop a relationship between learning outcomes and technological means (Atun & Usta, 2019).

All these aspects reveal how the Integrated Framework of Curriculum fails to consider these elements for providing early childhood education in Jamaica as they are relevant and effective when applied simultaneously.

The current state of the Jamaican early childhood education system does not operate within the professional benchmarks found in the United States, Canada, and other strong countries (Kinkead-Clark, 2024); instead, the current shape of early childhood education policy relies on the multiple private but decentralized stakeholders, making it challenging to avail benefits from a synchronized systematic policy (Kinkead-Clark, 2024).

For instance, the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Labor, Ministry of Health, and other regulatory agencies separately implement early childhood policy in Jamaica (Kinkead-Clark, 2024). Vandenbroeck (2020) insists that early childhood care and education policy does not depend on political motives or strategies of a government; instead, they must rely on empirical data and scientific factors to back up the views that justify any policy selection or rejection related to early childhood education. In addition, the prime purpose of this synchronization is to develop an alignment between policy developers and policy followers (such as early childhood teachers), as it would enable the early childhood education policy to achieve its milestones envisioned at the time of developing the policy framework (Kinkead-Clark, 2024).

Unfortunately, Jamaica is one of those countries where policy discontinuation has always created several challenges that subsequently affect the education system, teachers, academicians, and students simultaneously (Kinkead-Clark & Escayg, 2019). Also, the qualification of early childhood teachers retains a positive and robust relationship with teachers’ academic performance (Nutbrown, 2021). The study focuses on England and its current early childhood education system (Nutbrown, 2021). Such policy-level issues are common in other countries where education policy struggles to maintain compatibility with policy-level academic goals and curriculum development processes.

Specifically, preschoolers severely suffer when they see their teacher changing teaching methods or they experience new teachers in the middle of their academic session; it systematically and substantially affects preschoolers coming from economically backward communities (Ernst et al., 2019). Here, it is relevant to contend that the authors (i.e., Ernst et al.) have not supported their perspective by providing evidence. In such cases, personal perspectives do not become a reality representing the majority. Still, a minor segment of economically disadvantaged preschoolers may be experiencing the effects of policy discontinuation in Jamaica. However, it does not seem feasible to rely on the views of Ernst et al. because it may not allow one to see the whole picture in black and white.

Also, policy discontinuation affects teachers and their teaching methodology because they experience more challenges in meeting the expectations of preschoolers who do not know much about academic concepts as they begin to learn socialization and ways to interact with their peers and teachers. Fundamentally, early childhood education remains the most challenging compared to other classes. First, a teacher has to allocate a separate and individualized time, in some cases, to every student because of the nature of academic activity involved in such cases. Specifically, classroom teachers develop a specific type of relationship and environment with preschoolers where they feel a sense of attachment essential for learning at a basic level (Moen et al., 2019). Classroom environment plays a pivotal role for students, where their learning ability and academic performance substantially rely on their close understanding and coordination with class teachers.

For preschoolers, it is crucial to feel a natural or accommodating classroom environment where they prefer to communicate and share their perspectives with class teachers and learn things rapidly. This perspective supports the view developed by Moen et al. as preschoolers cannot learn without a conducive or constructive classroom environment designed to consider their needs and take measures to fulfill their expectations.

Still, one can argue that the study of Moen et al. has not specified any specific classroom activity that ensures a positive learning environment for preschoolers. Although various factors positively or negatively affect the classroom environment, identifying particular classroom activities that develop and ensure a positive classroom environment is also critically essential. Unfortunately, in Jamaica, preschoolers still struggle to experience a constructive classroom environment because of discontinued policies in the country’s education sector.

Early childhood Jamaican teachers face numerous challenges while teaching students at a basic level. Baker-Hennlngham et al. (2021) investigated how Jamaican teachers cope with violent and disruptive student behavior while carrying out their professional functions. The study employed primary research to collect first-hand information from the chosen respondents (Baker-Hennlngham et al., 2021). The researchers considered primary research the only way to achieve the study goal (Baker-Hennlngham et al., 2021). The selection of twenty-four preschools in Kingston enabled the study to apply a cluster-randomized trial to collect data from the research settings (Baker-Hennlngham et al., 2021).

Subsequently, the researchers selected 225 student participants who frequently applied disruptive behavior in class, enabling all research settings (i.e., schools) to nominate and send 3 student respondents to participate in the experiment (Baker-Hennlngham et al., 2021). For instance, the results indicate the effect size of academic achievement is 0.23, self-regulation (0.25), school attendance (0.30), oral language (0.28), and social skills (0.19) (Baker-Hennlngham et al., 2021). These findings conclude that such interventions (teacher training) remain highly productive in Jamaica as they enable schools to develop positive attitudes in preschoolers throughout the country (Baker-Hennlngham et al., 2021).

The study experiences limitations that restrict the scope of the study findings. The authors have taken a very small sample size. The problem with this approach is that it does not allow one to universalize its findings. When a primary research-based study employs less than three hundred sample observations, it is substantially challenging for others to refer to and consider its relevancy and efficacy.

Disruptive behavior poses a significant challenge for academic institutions in Jamaica and other Caribbean countries as respective governments prefer to take more radical and result-oriented efforts to minimize the problems posed and caused by disruptive behavior. They expect academicians and researchers to provide an evidence-based report enabling them to revisit their current education policy and practice.

Unfortunately, the highlighted case study’s small sample size does not seem to employ enough participants to encourage the Jamaican government to revamp its education policy. In addition, the study has only focused on Kingston. Consequently, it does not represent the scale and magnitude of disruptive behavior in other parts of the country, restricting the applicability of the findings to other parts of the country.   

School violence impacts more than half a billion students globally annually (Woden et al., 2021).  This aspect reveals that the issue of school violence is not uncommon in some countries, and its presence in dozens of developing or low-income countries is not a distant reality. Therefore, intervention must be sustainable to achieve its intended goals (Welsh et al., 2020). In many developing countries, where income remains a significant hurdle for early childhood education, children (ages 2 to 4) often experience violence in numerous forms from their parents or those who look after them (McCoy et al., 2022; Cuartas et al., 2019).

A closer analysis highlights that economic factors affect child education. When a child experiences any form of violence at home or school, this situation creates cognitive challenges for the child. This emotional and psychological problem does not facilitate the child to learn and understand like other children. The alarming aspect of this violence is that it also occurs in academic institutions where children face cognitive and social challenges. The presence of violence in any form (physical or psychological) makes it challenging for a child to learn things.

However, one study suggests how Jamaica is tackling school violence. Baker-Henningham et al. (2023) investigated how violence and different interventions enable teachers and parents to avoid violence used to punish students in Jamaica. The primary aim was to evaluate programs related to violence and their effects on children (Baker-Henningham et al., 2023). The study utilized secondary research to collect data and achieve the required results (Baker-Henningham et al., 2023). For instance, the article selects 2 violence-prevention and training programs for parents to reduce the presence and impact of early childhood violence in Jamaica (Baker-Henningham et al., 2023). They include “the Irie Classroom Toolbox (a teacher-training program), and the Irie Homes Toolbox (a parenting program)” (Baker-Henningham et al., 2023, p.2).

The subsequent analysis of the programs exhibits how the results enable parents and teachers to follow these protocols (Baker-Henningham et al., 2023). The study concludes with seven prime themes by evaluating 2 programs. First, the analysis recommends designing the program from scratch; second, parents and teachers must use learning cycles to enhance the quality of design and related objectives; third, it is essential to work coordinately with government representatives as it will bring more efficacy to the program; fourth, uninterrupted training and development programs for parents and teachers must be available with a close monitoring of the programs; fifth, a committee must be present to note and supervise the implementation of training and development sessions; sixth, the report recommends that achievable goals and methods must enable parents and teachers to work effectively; seventh, a sustainable continuity in program implementation offers a way to avoid violence and its impact on children living in Jamaica (Baker-Henningham et al., 2023).

Other studies also highlight interventions in child development in many countries, such as Ghana (Wolf, 2019) and Jamaica (Baker-Henningham et al., 2019). In addition, the cost side of early education is another significant area in Jamaica. Baker-Henningham et al. (2019) contend that the cost of providing high-quality early childhood education is increasing substantially because of various factors essential to maintaining quality benchmarks.

Classroom Management Practices for Early Childhood Teachers

Classroom management refers to creating a constructive and enjoyable learning environment for preschoolers. A learning environment is an academic setting where students can understand and communicate easily with peers and teachers. For instance, when a new student enters a classroom for the first time in life, this academic introduction must provide enough learning and enjoyment material where he can relate both learning and enjoyment simultaneously. The relationship between learning and enjoyment must remain stable. For instance, if a student has more academic material than the available toys, it may not encourage or motivate them to learn or even adopt the learning environment quickly. It may even discourage the student from talking with peers or understanding the surroundings that are purely fundamental to developing a learning environment.

Academically, a practical and professional learning environment allows preschoolers and early childhood teachers to reap the benefits of regular communication and build an understanding of the learning environment. It motivates them to consider adopting the environment and its components. Without this academic structure, it would be challenging for preschoolers to develop and practice common communication skills with other class students and teachers.

A classroom environment must be enjoyable for new students. A balance between age-specific playful activities and academic tasks remains the most critical point that shows whether a learning environment is achieving its goals. For instance, a play area is one example where preschoolers feel excited to get involved in different educational and extra-curricular activities designed to encourage them to share their personal learning experiences with peers and teachers. The play area must include enough elements that attract the attention of preschoolers because the prime purpose is to offer an enjoyable introduction to students before implementing other classroom management practices and strategies.  

Early childhood settings must provide a safe learning environment that must introduce the concepts of educational tasks, class rules, and communication protocols with classmates. Also, classroom management is a way to understand the expectations and requirements of preschoolers. It must include self-regulation and behavioral constructivism as they enable students to see how they improve their social skills and personal issues, particularly when they enter a classroom and work with other students. For example, a child must not feel a sense of alienation, deprivation, or isolation; instead, it must offer a place where familiarity, positive socialization, and consistent routines must exist to develop new educational behaviors (Hemmeter et al., 2021).

A child must not feel a sense of alienation, deprivation, or isolation; instead, it must offer a place where familiarity, positive socialization, and consistent routines must exist to develop new educational behaviors (Hemmeter et al., 2021). A sense of alienation occurs when a teacher fails to build a constructive relationship with a student. Although the concept of alienation and its impact on a child’s psychology may not be relevant for a teacher, there is no way to undermine the sense of alienation and its impact on the personal and social development of the child. One way or the other, the teacher needs to consider the sense of alienation problem and make efforts to reduce its frequency and occurrence. For example, a teacher can discuss the matter with the parents and seek their feedback on how to deal with it. Efforts must identify the reasons causing the sense of alienation. After this, the teacher will experience the positive effects of constructive relationships and positive socialization with children.

Many preschoolers struggle to adjust when they feel unsafe from the disruptive behaviors of peers, and such situations create a sense of insecurity when they frequently face negative behaviors from other students. Overall, the prime role of classroom management is to provide a learning environment where preschoolers can find a reasonable balance between enjoyment and learning, feel safe and secure from unfriendly attitudes, and learn academic tasks and activities that enable them to enjoy and learn social and personal skills.  

Early childhood development is a comprehensive set of developments taking place simultaneously. They include physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and behavioral dimensions (Manas, 2020). Each development has its causes and effects that sometimes affect positively or negatively to children. Physical development occurs when a child experiences an increase in the body, causing the child to experience growth in height and weight. At this stage, an early childhood teacher may not consider this aspect relevant because this dimension is less important than the other aspects. Particularly, cognitive abilities are the most significant as they substantially affect the mental and academic growth of the child.

Cognitive abilities refer to specific skills, including problem-solving, contemplation, and learning (Saracho, 2023). They exhibit how a child as a new learner grasps and understands external knowledge that he experiences in educational and domestic settings. Their observation suggests how to see, process, and apply knowledge after learning it. For example, Saracho & Evans (2021) contend that children do not start directly learning cognitive skills before learning social skills that enable them to apply the former ones. This aspect shows the significance of the academic environment for children because socialization encourages children to see things as they appear. However, the proponents of behavioral theories rarely support the view highlighted by Saracho and Evans, and they contend that behavioral changes enable new learners, particularly children, to learn new things during their interaction with others, not socialization (Schunk, 2021). A closer analysis reveals that cognitive skills and their impact on behavior are not visible (i.e., the difference between the 2 paradigms). It means it is possible to observe the effect of newly learned cognitive skills on the behavior of a child, enabling one to find compatibility between the perspectives of the two theories explained above.

Peer relationships are also significant between children who learn within the same class. Classroom management also requires a professional early childhood teacher to understand personality type and its impact on the social environment of the class. Fundamentally, children retain different personalities, while others exhibit the features of extroverted personalities. This difference is natural. However, when 2 children retaining opposite personalities interact, the chances of miscommunication are possible, and that can lead to a minor quarrel between them in the class.

In this situation, the teacher has to notice and intervene by helping them highlight the significance of different personalities and their impact on individual behaviors.  The best way to handle the situation is to see the reason behind their feud, as this will enable the teacher to take necessary measures to resolve the issue. Personality differences may not be the only factor behind this situation. It is possible that misunderstanding has not allowed them to talk and work collectively in their class.

Under such situations, classroom management also relies on effective communication between teachers and children. For example, a student retains negative behavior and does not allow others to do their tasks. This situation necessitates the teacher to identify the type of negative behavior and its features. This closer analysis offers an opportunity to develop an effective intervention suitable to reduce the effect of the negative behavior on the child. In other words, the teacher has to maintain this child-specific strategy along with other classroom frameworks to ensure the presence of a learning environment. Subsequently, the teacher must monitor the behavior and subsequent changes affecting the child and the classroom environment, as it will enable other students to continue successfully reaching their academic milestones.  

Learning is a dynamic and undefined way to understand things, particularly for preschoolers. Practical educational learning enables children to learn knowledge, as described by Piaget (Berk, 2021). In a classroom, an early childhood teacher can apply the concept of practical educational learning by demonstrating mathematical methods (addition or subtraction) to make children learn concepts. It is possible that some children may not find this learning method suitable because of personal, social, or cognitive reasons. The application of behavioral, cognitive, and experiential learning are other methods available for early childhood teachers to improve the academic learning abilities of students.

Classroom management depends on the effectiveness of management strategies early childhood teachers apply. When a new child enrolls and enters a new school and class, it becomes clear that the child will learn, understand, and apply new class rules. They include those protocols and strategies that enable a newly enrolled child to develop a sense regarding rules of communication with teachers and peers. In some cases, early childhood teachers directly and verbally inform new children about class rules, but in other cases, they are built to instructions, teaching styles, and communication frameworks between an early childhood teacher and senior students (enrolled 3 or 4 months before new students) as their communication with the classroom teacher will guide newly enrolled students to follow their path. However, numerous schools follow their academic policy to develop rules and standards regarding classroom management; some allow teachers to apply their teaching standards while managing a class, and others follow school-recommended classroom management practices (Slavin, 2020).

The effectiveness of classroom management relies on independent and social factors. For example, effective classroom management depends on the quality of the learning environment (Diamond et al., 2019). A closer analysis reveals that when an early childhood teacher is professionally competent and well-informed, such professional qualities raise the learning ability of newly enrolled students, enabling the classroom environment to maintain quality standards. Similarly, the professional commitment of early childhood teachers also helps enforce class rules effectively (Clements et al., 2020).

Children below the age of five do not easily follow class rules in the beginning. They resist the change that is forcing them to develop a new cognitive frame that can enable them to adapt to the new classroom environment filled with new communication standards. This resistance sometimes affects not only the behavior of the resisting child but also the classroom environment where other children begin following the behavior of that child. This situation necessitates evaluating and developing a new classroom strategy that can enable the child to follow class rules.

Many times, teachers struggle to change the behavior, and the classroom environment fails to comply with class rules. Therefore, this situation tests the commitment of a professional early childhood teacher to take all measures to enforce class rules without taking any solid action against the child. Fundamentally, the main benefit of professional development courses is that they provide case studies of such behaviors and highlight experiential and solid strategies to implement class rules in early childhood settings. Also, professional commitment comes with experience, qualification, knowledge, and classroom management skills that enable an early childhood teacher to manage a class effectively. However, the problem with these perspectives is that they are highly subjective rather than objective, making it extremely challenging to support the view proposed by the authors.

Early childhood teachers follow classroom management strategies that enable them to quickly achieve their academic results because they consider this strategy the most effective way to manage a class. Also, an early childhood teacher cannot undermine the significance of curriculum and its relationship with classroom management practices (Jenkins et al., 2019). As the possibility of additional topics or new ones in every school is not a distant reality, early childhood teachers find it relevant to apply those classroom management practices that ensure a reasonable equilibrium between curriculum and classroom management practices (Jenkins et al., 2019).

However, the perspective of Jenkins et al. lacks vibrancy. For instance, a student exhibits a typical behavior, making it challenging for an early childhood teacher to follow the recommended classroom management protocol because it would be ineffective to modify the behavior using traditional classroom management. Overall, there is no universal classroom management practice that can work as a sure guide to achieve the objectives of pre-determined classroom management practices.  

An educational interaction demonstrates the nature and strength of a relationship between an early childhood teacher and a student. Salminen et al. (2021) investigated the correlation between teacher-student contact quality and the self-regulation of students who participated from Portugal and Finland. The study employed primary research to collect data from different institutions in the two countries; it recruited two hundred and thirty and two hundred and eighty-three child participants from Finland and Portugal respectively (Salminen et al., 2021). Before collecting data from the field, the study identified variables for behavioral self-regulation and the quality of teacher-student contact (Salminen et al., 2021). The primary variables for self-regulation included attention, working memory, and inhibition control, whereas emotional and behavioral support and engaged support for learning represented the qualitative variables about the interaction quality of early childhood teachers and students (Salminen et al., 2021, p. 1). Consequently, it is reasonable to deduce that cultural factors affect personal and behavioral variables and their relationship with the quality of teacher-student contact (Salminen et al., 2021).    

Previous studies have also highlighted the significance of these developmental factors. Murray et al. (2019) assert that classroom-related cognitive requirements are fundamentally instrumental for newly enrolled students as they enable students to apply attention and behavioral models to understand their effects on their communication level with a class teacher. These personal factors also affect their social and educational relationships with teachers and peers, as their quality depends on the depth of their understanding and communication frequency (Ulferts et al., 2019). However, it is difficult to observe the same level of interaction and quality between teachers and students because the external environment, particularly culture and social behaviors, substantially affects children’s behaviors (Tommssdorff, 2019).    

Rule-making is a significant skill for children at this stage of life. When a child enters a school, he does not know about rules and those things that help them become successful in life. Children are about to start a new academic life that can enable them to see different aspects of life. This aspect necessitates that an early childhood teacher teach them about rules and their impact on their way of life. For example, the importance of a promise, which one guarantees to do a thing, can be the first point to start about the significance of rule-making.

In addition, an early childhood teacher can also involve other students to form a relationship that helps them guide how to make rules in life. This simple exercise shows the significance of rule-making. However, an early childhood teacher must monitor these activities as their purpose is to teach children about a significant lesson in life using the concept of rule-making. Also, the early childhood teacher must help them construct different aspects related to rule-making as this will enable children to learn various dimensions of rule-making in life.

Building relationships is crucial for students. The art of developing social relations is significant for them as it will enable them to understand the values and norms in life. An early childhood teacher must teach them how to make social relationships and build them throughout their life. They must be capable enough to see the significance of relations and their positive impact on emotions and other factors.

Professional Development of Early Childhood Teachers

Curriculum planning and implementation exhibit the significance of professional development programs. Many countries enforce professional development programs to improve their traditional teaching methods (Avidov-Ungar, 2019; Avidov-Ungar et al., 2019). In this context, the role of professional learning communities has become crucial for academic institutions (Fred et al., 2019). These communities help develop curriculum planning and execution at a school and national level. Therefore, curriculum planning and execution determine the professional development level of an early childhood teacher. Fundamentally, curriculum planning refers to an academic activity designed to skim an early childhood curriculum and divide it into different educational sessions and activities. It also includes developing a relationship between a curriculum topic and a playful activity, enabling preschoolers to learn and play simultaneously.

The implementation phase enables a teacher to teach practically and make students learn curriculum topics with playful activities. An early childhood teacher must consider the learning environment that encourages students to participate actively in an academic session. Blending an educational topic with a playful activity remains the most critical dimension in the implementation phase because achieving academic goals depends on this blending process.

However, this decision-making remains a delicate process for the teacher as compatibility among numerous factors is a prerequisite in many cases. For instance, it is possible that a student may not like the activity that a teacher has decided to use to teach the topic to the student. These and other factors create substantial challenges for the implementation phase.  Therefore, the Teacher-Child Interaction Training-Universal (TCIT-U) program offers a comprehensive guide suggesting a way to implement an effective interaction between an early childhood teacher and a child (Fawley et al., 2020). Simultaneously, previous studies have also validated the effectiveness of TCIT-U because of its unique strategy that enables both teacher and child to understand the perspectives in a simple way (Davidson et al., 2021).

Developing curiosity enables students to participate actively in a learning process (Singh & Manjaly, 2022). An early childhood teacher must be capable of identifying and understanding the psychological level of a preschooler. Knowing what is happening in the mind of a preschooler is the starting point because it will enable the teacher to develop a strategy to motivate the preschooler to participate in the playful activity. For instance, if a preschooler does not seem interested in a puzzle game used to teach a concept, the teacher can use a different strategy to teach the student the intended concept (i.e., bridges). It may include asking the preschooler to consider a table as a bridge and cross over or under it. For it, the teacher must personally perform the act before the preschooler.   Overall, curriculum planning and implementation are the two phases that exhibit whether a teacher is professionally competent to achieve academic milestones set at the beginning of an educational session.

Supporting diversity represents the professional commitment of early childhood teachers (Rowan et al., 2020). Educational diversity is a classroom where preschoolers from different socio-economic backgrounds learn collectively. It is an academic environment where caste, religion, color, gender, discrimination, and other similar denominations find no place; instead, the educational setting must encourage the early childhood teacher to teach the significance of diversity by promoting its benefits for all students. However, diversity policy relies on a school’s academic policy and framework. A teacher cannot do anything on their behalf unless the school policy allows teaching preschoolers diversity to promote fairness.

Obtaining the purpose of inclusivity depends on the support of a curriculum. Some preschoolers face cognitive challenges that do not allow them to learn and move along with their peers. They struggle to maintain the pace required to learn a lesson like other classmates. This situation is not uncommon in many institutions where schools have developed specific models and frameworks dealing with such situations.

Consequently, it remains the primary professional responsibility of an early childhood teacher to learn those professional skills that provide enough academic support to improve the educational performance of such students with an effective intervention mechanism (Lyon & Bruns, 2019). Sometimes, aggressive behaviors also affect the classroom environment, making it challenging for other students to feel the needed sense of safety and congeniality.

However, social acceptance improves when a student applies empathy and inclusion (Pratt, 2019). As a result, a professionally competent teacher can adequately manage such students after attending the professional development programs and courses. It also includes undergoing a training process for differentiated instruction as it enables a teacher to teach professionally to children with learning disabilities (Bariffe & Pittas, 2021).

Culturally responsive teaching understands cultural sensitivities and their effect on the learning environment (Hutchison & McAlister-Shields, 2020). Schools enroll preschoolers coming from numerous cultures and countries. They include Muslims, Hindus, Jews, and other cultural and religious identities, highlighting the significance and impact of today’s multiculturalism and its overarching influence on academic settings. The amalgamation of diverse cultures describes the presence of multiculturalism, enabling preschoolers from different cultures to learn under one roof. For example, some customs, objects, perspectives, myths, and other culturally sensitive elements have added dynamism to today’s academic environment.

Therefore, an early childhood teacher must remain careful about these sensitivities while teaching preschoolers. Also, many professional development courses describe numerous elements of multiculturalism by offering an opportunity for early childhood teachers to become culturally responsive teachers. In other words, without undergoing a comprehensive professional development program, an early childhood teacher may not professionally provide a culturally responsive learning environment to students.

Parental coordination provides a congenial learning environment for children (Jalongo, 2021). Family engagement is a process that enables a teacher to develop and establish a communication mechanism with parents to discuss numerous aspects related to a preschooler. The role of this communication mechanism is critically significant as it will enable parents to share their feedback and perspectives about the personal and educational performance of the preschooler. In case, a teacher wants to share something with parents, the teacher can use the communication mechanism to discuss the matter with them.

A selected teaching approach enables a teacher to achieve educational goals promptly. Parents give more time than a teacher to their children. They understand their fears, reservations, behaviors, perspectives, and other sensitivities. Compared to teachers, parents are in a better position to highlight specific domestic issues with the teacher to develop a teaching strategy for the child. The absence of any communication mechanism may cause the teacher to struggle to identify and apply a workable teaching method for the child. Also, parents give feedback about the child that can further enable the teacher to continue the current strategy or develop a new one.

A supportive learning environment cognitively improves the academic performance of preschoolers (Twum-Antwi et al., 2019). Cognitive developments enable preschoolers to adapt to their surroundings and develop and apply similar behaviors and perspectives. Sometimes, a child struggles to cope with a social situation where fear does not allow sharing the issue with parents and the teacher. This problem makes it difficult for the child to learn and develop a pace with peers, creating social and educational hurdles that affect their learning abilities. In this situation, both parents and the teacher need to discuss the issue and take separate but coordinated steps that encourage the preschoolers to overcome the learning challenges affecting their educational performance.

Tackling behavioral challenges is one such example where the need for their coordination becomes a necessity. For instance, a preschooler exhibits the symptoms of stubborn behavior while interacting with peers and the teacher. Unfortunately, the preschooler continues to stand on the point, making it challenging for others to talk and understand an issue. As a result, this situation necessitates parents and teachers to take measures to reduce the frequency of stubborn activities. The teacher has to identify those things that cause or force the preschooler to exhibit stubborn behavior. This identification process will enable parents and teachers to implement a counter strategy against stubborn behavior. Some previous studies have highlighted the benefits of behavioral intervention to tackle such issues (McClelland et al., 2019).

Implications

Continuous professional development remains the most critical aspect for early childhood teachers. Preschoolers face academic and cognitive challenges when they enter a class. They struggle to manage and move along with their peers because of learning disabilities. It remains the primary responsibility of an early childhood teacher to allow students to compete in the class. This process remains the most critical aspect as it is not an easy process available for early childhood teachers, therefore, participating in professional training and development programs enables teachers to apply that knowledge to challenges affecting the student.

This evaluation occurs when an early childhood teacher has attended professional training and development programs in workshops, seminars, and other professional events. In addition, attending professional development programs does not mean developing the evaluation capacity; instead, practical demonstrations and continuous learning of professional courses are those factors that are highly fundamental for improving professionalism. In addition, continually attending professional courses or events enables early childhood teachers to stay updated about changes affecting the professional activities and assessment methods in early childhood education.

The purpose of professional development is to develop professional skills through training and development (Ramirez-Montoya et al., 2021). Integrity is essential for early childhood teachers as they teach preschoolers who will see a new academic world where behaviors and new learning will guide them to develop their ethical and learning skills. Apart from academic teachings, a teacher must be capable of teaching ethics, to some extent, and their role in personality and behavior development. Without improving ethics and their relationship with positive academic learning, it is rare to see positive and constructive attitudes and behaviors in preschoolers. Before this, an early childhood teacher must obtain certifications or attend seminars or professional courses to teach ethics to preschoolers. The prime benefit of obtaining certifications is that they empower an early childhood teacher to get in touch with the latest happenings in early childhood education. The advantage of attending seminars also provides an opportunity to coordinate with other teachers working in the same field. Seminars offer unique benefits as they facilitate expert interaction and sharing experience with practical demonstrations.

Knowing and applying appropriate and timely assessment methods is another professional demeanor for early childhood teachers. Formative assessment occurs when the teacher enables students to learn and understand knowledge and academic activities. For example, observation is a formative assessment tool that encourages a teacher to see whether a student is completing tasks as required. If the student fails to do the assigned work, the teacher can intervene and help the student achieve the required academic results. In other words, assessment tools benefit students in understanding the weaknesses they encounter in educational endeavors. For an early childhood teacher, identifying and applying a relevant assessment method is essential as it provides an opportunity to consider a student’s academic level and ability to perform an academic task. Overall, assessment methods are beneficial for teachers and students.

In contrast, a summative assessment is an annual assessment designed to evaluate whether students have obtained their grades as determined by the institution. An early childhood teacher must understand the distinction between the formative and summative assessment methods as it will enable the teacher to carry out teaching activities professionally.

The significance of technology in early childhood education has become an essential component. Investment in early childhood education offers benefits of sustainability that will enable a nation to build its sustainable future (Kinkead-Clark et al., 2019). Therefore, an early childhood teacher needs to understand the advantages and disadvantages of technology for children. Every piece of technology offers benefits and drawbacks for different users. For preschoolers, a teacher must select those apps that enable a preschooler to learn more about the curriculum and playful activities. Balancing learning with extracurricular activities remains a top priority for an early childhood teacher. For example, restricted and closely monitored access to apps will enable children to learn quickly and apply knowledge, whereas traditional teaching methods take more time and effort to teach a concept to preschoolers.    

The responsibility for a child’s health lies with early childhood teachers. A newly enrolled student enters a school to learn as he does not know much about health issues while playing or learning during a class. Because of his age and cognitive level, he only wants to enjoy and learn slightly about the surroundings. This aspect increases the responsibility of an early childhood teacher, who spends around four to five hours with children. Fundamentally, early childhood education works effectively and achieves objectives when a teacher understands their role and responsibilities related to an academic, social, cognitive, and healthy environment for early childhood teachers.

Some teachers struggle to ensure a reasonable balance between these aspects because they sometimes fail to realize the responsibilities they retain to the children they are teaching. In addition, a clean classroom environment is fundamental for children’s health. School administration takes all cleaning before the commencement of classes. They hire specific individuals to clean classrooms and play areas. Still, it does not exonerate early childhood teachers from their health and safety-related responsibilities towards children.

Health education improves the academic performance of students (Chow et al., 2020). The canteen and cafeteria are two places where schools allow individuals to sell candies, snacks, and other food items to students. Sometimes, these places do not offer healthy food items; instead, unhealthy junk food severely affects a child’s health who consumes them. Under this situation, it becomes the primary responsibility of an early childhood teacher to teach students about healthy eating, which is only possible when a student understands the difference between healthy and unhealthy food items, therefore, the teacher has to make extra efforts to learn about this distinction and suggest they prefer eating only healthy food items. Consequently, it raises the significance of health education as a crucial part of learning for children because health and education move hand in hand. Without health, a child may fail to carry out tasks required to obtain good grades. 

Chapter Summary

The primary aim of the literature review chapter is to evaluate 3 aspects of early childhood education in Jamaica and its conceptual framework (the Irie Model). The model exhibits its development phase and its usefulness to parents and teachers. The first segment is about early childhood teachers in Jamaica, where previous literature highlights the history of early childhood education in Jamaica. The segment shows how the country has experienced political and other challenges that have not allowed it to achieve its goals of early childhood education, especially the policy discontinuation by a change in a political government.

The second component explains classroom management practices for early childhood teachers. This part highlights the significance of the learning environment and those factors fundamental for obtaining educational objectives for early childhood teachers. It also points out those factors that create hurdles for the learning environment to function effectively by critically evaluating personal, social, and cognitive factors that affect the classroom environment.

The third section highlights the significance of professional development for early childhood teachers. It highlights the role of professional learning communities in enhancing the quality of early childhood education. Also, it shows the personal and professional attributes of early childhood teachers, which play a pivotal role in improving students’ performance.

References

Atun, H., Usta, E. (2019). The effects of programming education with TPACK framework on learning outcomes. Participatory Educational Research (PER), 6(2), 26-36.

Avidov-Ungar, O., Guberman, A., Dahan, O., & Serlin, R. (2019). Professional communities of teacher educators: the characteristics that promote their success. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 1–22.

Avidov-Ungar, O. (2019). Professional learning communities of teachers: Israeli principals’ perceptions. Journal of Educational Administration. JEA-10-2017–0126.

Baker-Henningham, H., Scott, Y., Bowers, M., & Francis, T. (2019). Evaluation of a violence-prevention programme with Jamaican primary school teachers: a cluster randomised trial. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16, 27-97.

Baker-Henningham, H., Bowers, M., Francis, T., Verg-Herngndez, M., & Walker, S.P. (2021a). The Irie classroom toolbox, a universal violence-prevention teacher-training programme, in Jamaican preschools: a single-blind cluster-randomized controlled trial. The Lancet Global Health, 9(4), e456-e468.

Bariffe,C., & Pittas, E. (2021). Early childhood teachers’ beliefs and practices about the inclusion of children with Autism in Jamaica: An exploration study. International Journal of Special Education, 36(2), 66-77.

Baker-Henningham, H., Bowers, M., & Francis, T. (2023). The process of scaling early childhood violence prevention programs in Jamaica. Pediatrics, 151 (2), e2023060221M.

Baker, M., Gruber, J., & Milligan, K. (2019). The long-run impacts of a universal child care program. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 11(3), 1–26.

Baker-Hennlngham, H., Scott, Y., Francis, T., & Walker, S.P. (2021). Effects of a teacher-training violence prevention program in Jamaican preschools on child behavior, academic achievement, and school attendance in grade one of primary school: follow up of a cluster randomized trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 652050.

Berk, L. (2021). Infants, children, and adolescents. Pearson

Bowers, M., Francis, T., & Baker-Henningham, H. (2022). The Irie classroom toolbox: mixed method assessment to inform future implementation and scale-up of an early childhood, teacher-training, violence-prevention program. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1040952

Chow, C.Y., Riantiningtyas, R.R., Kanstrup, M.B., Papavasileiou, M., Liem, G.D., & Oslen, A. (2020). Can games change children’s eating behavior? a review of gamification and serious games. Food Quality and Preference, 80, 103823.

Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., Layzer, C., Unlu, F., & Fesler, L. (2020). Effects on mathematics and executive function of a mathematics and play intervention versus mathematics alone. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 51, 301–333. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresemtheduc-2019-0069

Cuartas J., McCoy D.C., Rey-Guerra C., Britto P.R., Beatriz E, & Salhi, C., (2019). Early childhood 345 exposure to non-violent discipline and physical and psychological aggression in low- 346 and middle-income countries: National, regional, and global prevalence estimates. 347 Child Abuse and Neglect,92,93-105.

Davidson, B. C., Davis, E., Cadenas, H., Barnett, M., Sanchez, B. E. L., Gonzalez, J. C., & Jent, J. (2021). Universal Teacher-Child interaction training in early special education: A pilot cluster‐randomized control trial. Behavior Therapy, 52(2), 379–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2020.04.014

Diamond, A., Lee, C., Senften, P., Lam, A., & Abbott, D. (2019). Randomized control trial of Tools of the Mind: Marked benefits to kindergarten children and their teachers. PLOS One, 14(9), e0222447

Ernst, J., Johnson, M., & Burcak, F. (2019). The nature and nurture of resilience: Exploring the impact of nature preschools on young Children’s protective factors. International Journal of Early Childhood Environmental Education, 6(2), 7–18.

Fawley, K.D., Stokes, T.F., Rainear, C.A., Rossi, J.L., & Budd, K.S. (2020). Universal TCIT improves teacher-child interactions and management of Child Behavior. Journal of Behavioral Education, 29(4), 635-656.

Francis, T., & Baker-Henningham, H. (2020). Design and implementation of the irie homes toolbox. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 282961.

Figueroa, R., Barnett, L., Estevan, I., & Wiley, A.R., (2019). How well can family childcare providers report on preschoolers’ motor skill competence? Child And Youth Care Forum, 48, 19-28.

Fred, H., Meeuwen Pierre, V., Ellen, R., & Marjan, V. (2019). How to enhance teachers’ professional learning by stimulating the development of professional learning communities: Operationalising a comprehensive PLC concept for assessing its development in everyday educational practice. Professional Development in Education, 46(5), 751– 769. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2019.1634630

Hemmeter, M.L., Fox, L., Snyder, P., Algina, J., Hardy, J.K., Bishop, C., & Veguilla, M. (2021). Corollary child outcomes from the Pyramid Model professional development intervention efficacy trail. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 54, 204-218.

Hutchison, L., & McAlister-Shields, L. (2020). Culturally responsive teaching: its applications in higher education environments. Education Sciences, 10(5), 124. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10050124

Hylton, K., & Hylton-Fraser, K. (2022). An evaluation of the “every child can learn, every must learn” mantra’s alignment with educational policies in Jamaica. Equity in Education & Society, 1(1), 163-181.

Jahnke, T. (2019). Building literacy skills in preschoolers through play. [Master’s thesis, Concordia University].

Jalongo, M.R. (2021). The effects of COVID-19 on early childhood education and care: research and resources for children, families, teachers, and teacher educators. Early Childhood Educational Journal, 49, 763-774.

Jenkins, J., Whitaker, A., Nguyen, T., & Yu, W. (2019). Distinctions without a difference? Preschool curricula and children’s development. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 12, 514–549. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2019.1631420

Kinkead-Clark, Z., & Escayg, K. A. (2019). Getting It Right from the Start: A Retrospective and Current Examination of Infant-Toddler Care in Jamaica. Occasional Paper Series, 2019(42), 9.

Kinkead-Clark, Z., Burns, S., & Abdul-Majied, S. (2019). Actualizing children’s rights through early childhood care and education: A focus on the Caribbean. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 18(1), 58-72. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 14767 18X19 875765

Kinkead-Clark, Z. (2023). System quality in early childhood care and education in Jamaica: Implications for policy. European Journal of Education, 59, e12607. Manas, G.M. (2020). A study on childhood development in early stage. Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies, 7(59), 13927-13938.

Lyon, A. R., & Bruns, E. J. (2019). From evidence to impact: Joining our best school mental health practices with our best implementation strategies. School Mental Health, 11(1), 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-018-09306-w

Maye-Hemmings, C., & Wint, M (Eds.) (2010). The Jamaica Early Childhood Curriculum Guide: Four and Five Getting Ready for Life. Dudley Grant.

McClelland, M. M., Tominey, S. L., Schmitt, S. A., Hatfield, B., Purpura, D., Gonzales, C., & Tracy, A. (2019). Red Light, Purple Light! Results of an intervention to promote school readiness for children from low‐income backgrounds. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2365. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02365

McCoy D, Seiden J, Cuartas J, Pisani L, Waldman M. Estimates of A Multidimensional 341 Index of Nurturing Care in the Next 1000 Days for Children in Low- and Middle-342 Income Countries: A Modeling Study. Lancet Child Adolescence Health 2022 6:324-634.

Melendez-Torres, G., Leijten, P., Gardner, F. (2019). What are the optimal combinations of parenting interventions components to reduce physical child abuse recurrence? Reanalysis of a systematic review using qualitative comparative analysis. Child Abuse Review, 28, 181-197.

Merrill, K.G., Smith, S.C., Quintero, L., & Devries, K.M. (2020). Measuring violence perpetration: stability of teachers’ self-reports before and after an anti-violence training in Cote d’Ivoire. Child Abuse and Neglect, 109, 104687.

Moen, A. L., Sheridan, S. M., Schumacher, R. E., & Cheng, K. C. (2019). Early childhood student–teacher relationships: What is the role of classroom climate for children who are disadvantaged? Early Childhood Education Journal, 47, 331–341

https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12607

Murray, D. W., Rosanbalm, K., Christopoulos, C., & Meyer, A. L. (2019). An applied contextual model for promoting self-regulation enactment across development: Implications for prevention, public health and future research. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 40(4), 367–403.

Nguyen, T., Duncan, G., & Jenkins, J. (2019). Boosting school readiness with preschool curricula. In A. Reynolds & J. Temple (Eds.), Sustaining early childhood learning gains: Program, school, and family influences (pp. 74–100). Cambridge University Press.

Nutbrown, C. (2021). Early childhood educators’ qualifications: a framework for change. International Journal of Early Years Education, 29(3), 236-249.

Pratt, C. (2019). Designing positive behavior support approaches. In P. Wolfberg (Ed.), Educating individuals on the autism spectrum (160-181). Autism Asperger Publishing Co.

Ramirez-Montoya, M.S., Andrade-Vargas, L., Rivera-Rogel, D., & Portuguez-Castro, M. (2021). Trends for the future of education programs for professional development. Sustainability, 13(3), 7244. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137244

Rowan, L., Bourke, T., L’Estrange, L., Brownlee, J.L., Ryan, M., Walker, S., & Churchward, P. (2021). How does initial teacher education research frame the challenges of preparing future teachers for student diversity in schools? A systematic review of literature. Review of Educational Research, 9(1), 112-158.

Saracho, O.N. (2023). Theories of child development and their impact on early childhood education and care. Early Childhood Education Journal, 51, 15-30.

Sacheli, L.M., Meyer, M., Hartstra, E., Bekkering, H., & Hunnius, S. (2019). How preschoolers and adults represent their joint action partner’s behavior. Psychological Research, 83, 863-877.

Saracho, O. N., & Evans, R. (2021). Theorists and their developmental theories. Early Child Development and Care, 191(7–8),993–1001.

Schunk, D. (2021). Learning theories: An educational perspective (8thed.). Pearson.

Slavin, R. (2020). How evidence‐based reform will transform research and practice in education. Educational Psychologist, 55, 21–31 .

Salminen, J., Guedes, C., Lerkkanen, M., Pakakrinen, E., & Cadima, J. (2021). Teacher-child interaction quality and children’s self-regulation in toddler classrooms in Finland and Portugal. Infant Child Development, 30, e222. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.2222

Samms, J. S. (2017). Inclusion in Jamaican Primary Schools: Teachers’ Self-Efficacy, Attitude, and Concerns. Unpublished PhD Dissertation. Georgia State University, United States.

Singh, A., & Manjaly, J.A. (2022). Using curiosity to improve learning outcomes in schools. SAGE Open, 12(1), 1-15.

Tommssdorff, G. (2019). Culture and development of self-regulation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3(5), 687–701. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00209.x

Twum-Antwi, A., Jefferies, P., & Ungar, M. (2019). Promoting child and youth resilience by strengthening home and school environments: A literature review. International Journal of School and Educational Psychology, 8(2), 78-89.

Ulferts, H., Wolf, K. M., & Anders, Y. (2019). Impact of process quality in early childhood education and care on academic outcomes: Longitudinal meta-analysis. Child Development, 90(5), 1474–1489.

Vandenbroeck, M. (2020). Early childhood care and education policies that make a difference. In R. Nieuwenhuis & W. VanLancker (Eds.), The palgrave handbook of family policy (pp. 169–191). Springer International Publishing

Welsh, J. A., Bierman, K. L., Nix, R. L., and Heinrichs, B. N. (2020). Sustained effects of a school readiness intervention: 5th grade outcomes of the Head Start REDI program. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 53, 151–160.

Woden Q., Fevre, C., Male, C., Nayihouba, A., & Nguyen, H. (2021). Ending Violence in Schools: An 349 Investment Case. The World Bank and the Global Partnership to End 350 Violence Against Children.

Whitaker, A.A., Jenkins, J.M., & Duer, J.K. (2022). Standards, curriculum, and assessment in early childhood education: Examining alignment across multiple state systems. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 58, 59-74.

Wolf, S. (2019). Year 3 follow-up of the ‘Quality Preschool for Ghana’ interventions on child development. Developmental Psychology, 55, 2587–2602.