In your essay you must analyze each of the three cases approved by your mentor according to these four distinct requirements:

(A) Identify and describe the facts of each case separately, the individuals or groups involved, the perpetrators, declared objectives, the authorities, reaction, and the eventual outcome.

(B) Apply your understanding of the case studies to analyze the processes leading to each event/case, the circumstances surrounding the ways each event unfolded, and the causes responsible for the subsequent results. If appropriate, distinguish between facts and commonly held myths about these cases.

(C) Evaluate each of the three cases according to the same one assumption or hypothesis concerning causes of terrorism from the repertoire of theory you have acquired during this course.

(D) Discuss the usefulness of the selected assumption/hypothesis when applied to each of the three cases. Specifically, assess whether or not it is relevant and contributes to the analysis and understanding of each case.

Note that this final project requires you to investigate the soundness of one terrorism-related assumption or hypothesis when applied to your case studies (item C).

Question 1.

Communication technology has revolutionized the way terrorism conduct their activities from recruitment, training, planning, collection of information and executing attacks (Martin, 2017). This is attributed to lessening monopoly on mass communication by states and increased penetration of the internet across the globe which has made executing terror activities easier. 

Terrorist groups use mass communication technologies such as radio, television and social media platforms to air propaganda. Successful terrorist propaganda messages can be traced to As-Sahab videos which gained popularity after an audio translation of Osama bin Laden’s message after the September 11th attack. Whilock (2008) noted As-Sahab had over time increased their video production and quality with videos produced surging from one every few months to one every 3.5 days. The videos were streamed online. Radio channels owned by terrorist groups include Al-Bayan which is controlled by ISIS and Radio Andalus operated by Al-Shabab among others. These are used for propaganda. 

The terrorists have also been using sophisticated encryption technology in their communication. Some of the communication sites used include encrypted Mail2Tor, Sigaint, and Telegram. Telegram stands out in that it can conceal a person’s identity. Terrorists have also created encrypted email applications full dedicated to their activities. These include Mojahedeen Secret, Tashfeer al Jawwal and Alemarah. Encrypted communication is used for planning and communication between terrorists. Online platforms such as Facebook and Twitter are used to recruit and organized travel for new recruits to Iraq and Syria. Homeland Security (2007) raised concern that applications such as Google Earth could offer in-depth logistical information to terrorists. The information can be used to launch attacks.

Communication technologies have also enabled terrorists to initiate cyber-attacks. Cyber-attacks are the intentional exploitation of information systems in a bid to interrupt the proper functioning of such systems. In 2015, a British ISIS hacker, Junaid Hussein, was charged with hacking and leaking identities of US military personnel for the group’s “Kill List” (Tahir, 2018).

States can curb terrorist’s use of communication technologies through denial, countering operation and exploiting their technologies. The United Nations Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force (2012) recommended denying terrorist access and acquisition of technology. Denying them acquisition could involve having stricter control on the sale of these technologies. Countering operational involves interfering with terrorist mass communication tools through jamming communications, hacking their websites and associated hardware among other technical countermeasures. For example, security forces can employ extremely short-range and high direction frequencies to disrupt mobile phones. Gross (2019) recommended the exploitation of terrorist technologies. By exploiting encrypted emails rather than disrupting them law enforcement agencies can retrieve information that can help them initiate arrests. They can also introduce mobile phones that permit the covert collection of information. The exploitation of technologies makes it easier to track and direct specific actions on an activity.

References

Gross, W. F. (2019). Monitoring and Tracking ISIS on the Dark Web. Online Terrorist Propaganda, Recruitment, and Radicalization, 341-350. DOI:10.1201/9781315170251-21

Homeland Security. (2007). Network Technologies for Networked Terrorists. Retrieved from RAND Corporation website: https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/technical_reports/2007/RAND_TR454.pdf

Martin, G. (2017). Understanding Terrorism. Retrieved from https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781506385839/cfi/6/28!/4/2/12/4@0:0. 

Tahir, T. (2018, November 22). Brit ISIS hacker behind cyber attacks to leak identities for ‘kill list? Retrieved from https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/7801426/brit-isis-hacker-cyber-attacks-leak-identities-us-military/

United Nations Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force. (2012). The use of the Internet for terrorist purposes. Retrieved from UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME website: https://www.unodc.org/documents/frontpage/Use_of_Internet_for_Terrorist_Purposes.pdf

Whitlock, C. (2008, June 24). Hearts and minds:Power of The Clouds‘ Al-Qaeda‘s growing online offensive,. Retrieved from http://

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Question 2.

A Fatwa is an Islamic ruling given by a qualified legal scholar (Helmus et al., 2013). The most famous fatwa was death-fatwa issued by Ayatollah Khomeini on Salman Rushdie who had authored a controversial book, Satanic Verses which most felt mocked Islam. However, in the recent jihadi fatwas have become common especially online. Helmus, York, and Chalk (2013) observed that online fatwas had become a significant instrument in tying together terrorism and religion. Put differently, issuance of online fatwas aims at cementing religious motivation to terrorism. 

Unlike in the past where issuance of fatwa required consultation with a sheik, online platforms have helped bypass this requirement. Internet platforms have become an avenue where Muslims can acquire religious instructions without coming into contact with a Sheikh. Cyber fatwas are used by terrorists to push for jihad. The fatwas provide a religious and moral justification for the use of terrorism. The instructions they offer define and identify the battlespace in which the attacks are to be executed. They also explain the proper means of action and in some cases calls for suicide attacks. Legitimate actions constitute suicide bombing operations, attack on property, engaging in war or cyber-attack.

Since the end aim of terrorism is to inflict violence or harm the victim, cyber fatwas help define who is the legitimate target. Online fatwas have always identified who the victim is. For example, in an online fatwa issued in 2005 by Al Qaeda in the Maghreb (AQIM), the fatwa called for the killing of Jews and Christians (Helmus et al., 2013). Prior fatwas issued by the groups targeted foreigners in Tunisia. Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi, an Egyptian cleric based in Qatar and whose fatwas are distributed online, at one point issued a fatwa against Israeli women (Weimann, 2011). The cleric reasoned that they were different from women in his society since they served as soldiers. Other fatwas have been directed at atheists and moderate Muslims. 

Fatwas are controversial even among Islamic scholars, but they pose a threat. To curb cyber fatwas, Islam scholars and institutions should be encouraged to take a peaceful stand and offer the fatwas not related to violence, radicalism, jihad or terrorism. Additionally, Muslim clerics, scholars, and institutions should give counter-fatwas. For example, in 2005 Syrian cleric Abu-Basir al-Tartusi posted a counter-fatwa against suicide operations (Weimann, 2011). For clerics issuing terrorist-related fatwas, the state can intervene by closing down their pages and profiles from social media sites. Law enforcement agencies should empower influential voices in Islam through research and information. Research should be aimed at addressing challenges and threats that Muslim communities face and how they can reconcile with other communities. Information should be made available to Muslim clerics and scholars that they can convey to their followers. Nonviolent Islamists should be empowered to talk to other believers and encourage them to opt-out of terrorism. 

References

Helmus, T. C., York, E., & Chalk, P. (2013). Promoting Online Voices for Countering Violent Extremism. Retrieved from Rand Corporation website: https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR100/RR130/RAND_RR130.pdf

Weimann, G. (2011). Cyber-Fatwas and Terrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 34, 765–781. DOI: 10.1080/1057610X.2011.604831

Question 3

Modern technologies have been exploited by terrorists for financing. Internet platforms are used to raise and collect funds. The Combating Terrorism Center (2017) noted that this can either be through the exploiting online payment tools, eCommerce, fraud, or receiving funds from charity firms. Online payment channels and cryptocurrencies have made it easier to transfer funds between entities electronically. The group exploits online payment services through identity theft, credit card theft, and stock fraud among other means.

Terrorist groups also abuse crowdfunding services by camouflaging the use of funds as aimed for humanitarian projects which they integrate either with legal payment platforms which in turn hamper detection and tracking by law enforcement agencies. For example, Adeel Ul-Haq was in 2016 charged and convicted by British authorities of terrorist financing. Adeel Ul-Haq had solicited contributions via Twitter in disguise of humanitarian aid convoys (Keatinge & Keen, 2019). In another case, Younis Tsouliwas charged with handling stolen credit cards. The money had been transferred through e-gold platform to several countries where it was used to register 180 websites hosting Al Qaeda incitement videos and provide support to terrorist activities.

Terrorist groups such as Qassam Brigades have turned to cryptocurrencies to fundraise for their activities. Sympathizers are given a unique Bitcoin address where one can send the digital currency. The method is favored because it is nearly impossible for authorities to track the donations. The lack of central authority like PayPal that can shut down or freeze the account also makes cryptocurrencies attractive to terrorist groups. Terrorists have also been able to earn through big-brand advertisements under their popular content. For example, in 2017, companies such as Mercedez Benz, Marie Curie and Waitrose, appeared on posts by UK extreme right-wing group Combat 18 and Daesh, which translates to revenue for the groups (CTC, 2017). Additionally, YouTube’s “Super Chat” feature allows users to raise funds through subscribers paying money to have their questions answered. Such channels are easy for a terrorist to exploit.

States and law enforcement agencies should be aggressive in the effort to curb internet terrorist financing. The US which has led the war against internet financing has made a number of prosecutions targeting money remitters (Keatinge & Keen, 2019). The country has also pursued money remitters outside of the country. However, the US cannot handle such efforts alone. Though many countries lack resources and technical capability to investigate online terrorist activities, international cooperation is necessary. Establishing an international legal instrument to govern tracking and prosecution would also be helpful. International laws and policies should encourage inter-agency and cross-border collaboration in fighting internet terrorist financing. Another option would be to reach out to individual web services providers such as YouTube, PayPal, and crowdfunding sites among others hosting troublesome groups and asking them to voluntarily shut them down.

References

Combating Terrorism Center (CTC). (2017, November 15). Terrorist Financing on the Internet – Combating Terrorism Center at West Point. https://ctc.usma.edu/terrorist-financing-on-the-internet/

Keatinge, T., & Keen, F. (2019). Social Media and Terrorist Financing: What are the Vulnerabilities and How Could Public and Private Sectors Collaborate Better? (10) Retrieved from Global Research Network on Terrorism and Technology website: https://rusi.org/sites/default/files/20190802_grntt_paper_10.pdf